2. Armed Violence, Instability and Human Security
The Geneva Declaration defines armed violence as “the intentional use of illegitimate force (actual or threatened) with arms or explosives, against a person, group, community, or state that undermines people-centered security and/or sustainable development”. Although the incidence of armed conflict has declined in recent years, the number of people killed by armed violence has not. Every year, armed violence kills around 535,000 people, more than three-quarters of whom die in non-conflict settings.[1]
Although Africa enjoyed considerably more peace in the 2000s than they did in earlier decades, the number of violent events has been on the rise since 2010.[2] The Horn of Africa (the Horn) has been mentioned as one of the most conflict-stricken regions in the globe.[3] The concentration of armed conflicts in the Horn, as well as in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Burundi and Cameroon, remain highly volatile.[4] The porosity of the borders of most countries in Africa as well as the deteriorating security situation in others and the subsequent dispersal of their arms stockpiles, have driven the illicit trafficking and proliferation of small arms and light weapons.[5] These are used to fuel violence which is increasingly experienced in terms of terrorism and political unrest rather than large-scale civil conflicts.
Over the years, violent extremism by terror groups has become the most critical challenge to peace, security and development in Africa. The deadliest of these are Boko Haram, al Qaeda in Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and al Shabaab.[6] Their terror activities have grown exponentially, not only in terms of the number of attacks but also the number of countries affected due to increased proliferation of terrorist groups. According to Global Extremism Monitor, Africa suffered at least 1,426 incidents of terrorism-related violence between 1 January 2016 and 30 September 2016, with sixteen different countries afflicted by terrorist activity over this period, and accounting for 8,120 deaths.[7] A study by the African Development Bank in 2013 examining youth unemployment in 24 countries over the past 30 years, concluded that this economic factor is a major driver of terrorism in Africa. These disgruntled youths might choose to engage in terrorism to communicate their discontent or to earn a living.[8]
The many and complex manifestations of armed violence have far-reaching implications on human security in Africa. Beyond deaths, armed violence in parts of Africa has led to significant displacements. According to UNHCR[9], the past two decades have seen an explosion in the number of forcibly displaced people around the globe: from 33.9 million in 1997 to 65.6 million by the end of 2016. During 2016 alone, 10.3 million people were newly displaced by armed conflict and political crises. This growth was concentrated between 2012 and 2015, and was driven by conflicts in Syria, Iraq, Yemen, as well as in Sub-Saharan Africa including Burundi, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Sudan and South Sudan.[10] The vast majority of internally displaced persons (IDPs, 99 per cent) and refugees (89 per cent) live in countries where health infrastructure may be wanting or unavailable.[11]
The consequences of displacement include unemployment, exposure to communicable diseases – most commonly cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and dysentery – a lack of access to public health and educational systems, neonatal and pregnancy-related complications, and food insecurity. In the absence of humanitarian assistance, forcibly displaced populations can be at particular risk of dying from causes indirectly related to conflicts. Excess mortality rates are especially high among IDPs in conflict areas.[12] The institutional, economic, and social breakdown resulting from conflicts often affects men, women, and children differently. While men are more likely to die during conflict, women and children account for the majority of refugees and forcibly displaced people.[13] Research by Chi Primus Che et al. shows that deteriorating conditions due to conflict negatively affect reproductive health and maternal mortality, leading to higher death rates among women and children.[14]
Armed conflicts in Africa have also caused political and economic instability. As Soares has pointed out, “it is important not to understate the threat to state capacity, the business environment, and social development that can be posed by chronically high levels of violence, organized crime, and the corruption that sometimes follows it.” In addition, weakened institutions, proliferation of arms, youth chronic unemployment, poor governance, economic stagnation, and social and economic inequalities are often identified as the drivers, as well as results, of persistent armed conflict. Armed conflict and instability thus represent serious human, political and economic costs. As a result, human security is seriously threatened in African countries that suffer from political instability, economic fragility and lack of government capacity or willingness to provide basic services and to protect people’s safety and security.
[1] Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development (Global Burden of Armed Violence 2015).
[2] Beegle, K., Luc, C., Andrew, D., & Isis, G., Poverty in a Rising Africa, 12.
[3] Muhabie, M. M., The Root Causes of Conflicts in the Horn of Africa. American Journal of Applied Psychology 4, no. 2 (2015): 28-34.
[4] Beegle, K., Luc, C., Andrew, D., & Isis, G., Poverty in a Rising Africa, 13.
[5] West African Network for Peacebuilding. Violent Extremism, Armed Violence and Human Security (2017).
[6] Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis. Rise of Terrorism in Africa (2017). Retrieved from
[7] Cummings, R., Africa’s 2017 Terrorism Outlook (2017).
[8] Azeng, T. F. and Yogo, T. U., Youth Unemployment And Political Instability In Selected Developing Countries, Working Paper Series N° 171.(Tunis: African Development Bank, 2013).
[9] UNHCR. Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016. (Geneva: UNHCR, 2017).
[10] UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2016, 14.
[11] World Bank, Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2017).
[12] Heudtlass, P., Speybroeck, N. and Guha-Sapir, D. Excess Mortality in Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons and Resident Populations in Complex Humanitarian Emergencies (1998– 2012)—Insights from Operational Data. Conflict and Health 10, no. 5 (2016).
[13] Strachan, A. L., and Haider, H., Gender and Conflict: Topic Guide (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 2015).
[14] Chi Primus Che, Bulge Patience, Urdal Henrik, and Sundby Johanne, Perceptions of the Effects of Armed Conflict on Maternal and Reproductive Health Services and Outcomes in Burundi and Northern Uganda: A Qualitative Study. BMC International Health and Human Rights 15, no. 7 (2015); Alda, E., and Mc Evoy, C., Beyond the Battlefield: Towards a Better Assessment of the Human Cost of Armed Conflict (Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2017), 7.